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Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera)

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Chortoicetes terminifera
Photo by Larena Woodmore
Taxonomic classification
Suborder:Caelifera
 
Family:Acrididae
 
Subfamily:Oedipodinae
 
Genus:Chortoicetes
 
Scientific name
Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker, 1870)
Geography
Native countries:
 
Pest status
Known pest

The Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) is widespread on the mainland of Australia and known as the most economically significant locust species, attributed to both the extent and frequency of its outbreaks, along with its ability to produce multiple generations in a year. Ecologically, C. terminifera primarily inhabits grasslands and semi-arid regions. They are polyphagous, feeding on various grasses and crops, which often leads to significant agricultural damage during outbreaks.

Taxonomy

​​For full nomenclature and taxonomic details of this taxon, see Orthoptera Species File No subspecies recorded for this taxon.


Identification

The Australian plague locust is a species of band-winged grasshoppers (subfamily Oedipodinae, family Acrididae). It can be recognized by its lobed hindwings, typically marked with dark bands or spots. These hindwings play a role in behavior, as the species produces a distinctive snapping sound, or crepitation, during flight,a feature that can aid field identification. While many band-winged grasshoppers are harmless to crops, C. terminifera is notorious for its capacity to form large, mobile swarms that can cause severe damage to cereal crops, pastures, and other vegetation during plague years.

Adult body color is variable and can be grey, brown, or green. Similarly, nymphs range from brown to green. When viewed from above, the thorax bears a 'X' marking similar to that of the adult insect.[1] In the early developmental stages, the hind portion of the 'X' is more prominent. The femur of the hind leg displays clear bands, with three light and three dark bands visible from above during early instars, and three light and two dark bands in later instars. When viewed from the side, these bands run perpendicular to the femur. The rear tibia is predominantly dark, except for a light band at its upper portion. The body exhibits a general mottled appearance rather than distinct patterns when viewed from the side.[1]

The Australian plague locust shows extreme density-dependent behavioral changes yet it does not display the color and shape modifications observed in the migratory locust and the desert locust.[2][3] Adults make short flights close to the ground which is typical of several grasshopper species, including the Eastern plague grasshopper (Oedaleus australis).[4] However, adults are recognizable due to the prominent dark spot located at the tip of their hindwings, along with their distinctive scarlet hind tibia.[5]

For more information on how to differentiate from other similar nymphs click here.

Identification resources

Title Author(s) Year Geographic purview URL
Australian plague locust 2023 View URL
How to identify locusts 2021 View URL
Managing locusts in Queensland 2022 View URL
Australian plague locust online learning module 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria Australian plague locust identification, biology and behaviour 2022 View URL
APLC locust and grasshopper identification guide Australian Plague Locust Commission
Locusts of Australia Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2020 View URL


Distribution

The range of the Australian plague locust spans over 2 million km² in inland eastern Australia.[5][6] It is also the only locust species restricted to Australia.[7]

For more information and distribution records see [GBIF]

Biology and ecology

The Australian plague locust occurs in semi-arid inland areas where rainfall is infrequent, keeping populations small to moderate. To find green vegetation for maturation and egg laying, they migrate between summer rainfall zones in the subtropics and autumn–winter rainfall regions about 1,000 km south. When conditions are favorable, populations can grow rapidly over several generations, forming dense hopper bands and swarms visible from aircraft and, if untreated, developing into large adult swarms.[6]

Typically, there are two to four generations of C. terminifera from spring (September) to autumn (May) each year, depending on the location's latitude.[8][9] They becomes inactive below 15°C, with most adults dying in southern winter months. Eggs laid autumn in the southern part of its range enter diapause, hatching in late spring, leading to multiple generations annually, typically three but varying with latitude and regional conditions.[1]

Eggs are laid in the soil, 3–10 cm deep, in pods containing 30–50 eggs. Under warm, moist conditions, development takes about two weeks. Development can be delayed by quiescence during dry conditions or by diapause in response to decreasing day length and temperatures in autumn, with eggs resuming development in late winter or early spring.[6] Diapause eggs stay inactive during winter and start growing again to hatch when soil temperatures rise in spring. Developing embryos may also pause their growth in response to low soil moisture levels. The mix of various growth speeds and dormancy leads to various possible paths of development, which can align the timing of the population with short periods of favorable habitat conditions.[10]

Nymphs develop through five instars, taking about five weeks in spring and slightly less than four weeks in mid-summer, with high-density nymphs forming bands by the second or third instar. After fledging, adults accumulate fat reserves for long-distance migration within a week.[11] Day flights are common, but wind-assisted night migrations of hundreds of kilometers occur, especially during troughs or fronts, with locusts flying 300–1,000 m high. These winds help them reach recently rained areas, where adults mature and begin laying eggs within a week, producing subsequent pods every 5–7 days in summer and 10–14 days in autumn. Gregarious oviposition leads to dense egg beds, and the resulting nymphs quickly form the species’ characteristic dense bands.[6] Review more information from the Australian Plague Locust Commission

C. terminifera displays behavioral phase polyphenism. Juvenile C. terminifera show strong density-dependent phase changes: isolated individuals are sedentary and avoid others, while crowded ones are active and attracted to conspecifics. This behavioural shift occurs within a single lifetime rather than across generations.[12]

Tactile stimulation of the antennae is the primary trigger for this gregarious behavior.[13] The Australian plague locust does not display the color and shape modifications observed in other locust species.[2][3]

See these papers to review the research on C. terminifera that has been conducted since the 1930s and continues today, covering aspects such as its migration patterns and life history.

Life cycle parameters [1]
Phase Developmental time
Eggs 15-30 days
Hopper 20-25 days
Adult 7-8 weeks
Laying-fledging 1 weeks
Adult maturation 1-2 weeks
Total 8-9 weeks

Habitat and ecology

The Australian plague locust occupies a potential habitat of around two million square kilometres,about half of inland eastern Australia,primarily in grasslands and open woodlands with loam or stone-mantled desert loam soils.[1] Key habitats include the Mitchell grass (Astrebla spp.) downs of western Queensland and the chenopod low open shrublands of southern Australia, although favorable weather can trigger major population increases and migrations into other regions. The species is widespread on the mainland, typically west of the Dividing Range, avoiding coastal areas and generally absent north of 21°S.[1][7] It also occurs in Western Australia and can sometimes reach economic significance in the south-western cropping zone. Landscapes generally unsuitable for breeding include forested areas, dense woodlands, rocky terrains, desert sandplains, and dune fields.[1][14]

Adult Australian plague locusts are highly nomadic, capable of traveling up to 20 km per day in swarms and flying nocturnally at altitudes of up to 1,000 m, with some flights exceeding 500 km in a single night.[1][6]

Their movements are often aided by winds, occasionally carrying them to coastal regions and even northern Tasmania.[1] In western Queensland, outbreaks frequently occur in the Channel Country, particularly in areas dominated by resilient grasses such as Mitchell grass, where rainfall promotes vegetation growth that sustains nymphs until they mature. Swarms from these regions commonly migrate south and southwest, affecting parts of New South Wales and South Australia.[7]

Australian plague locusts are genetically very similar across the continent, even though their populations are huge. This shows that only a small amount of movement between populations is enough to keep them genetically alike.[15][16] in [17]

The Australian plague locust is primarily graminivorous,[5] feeding on a wide variety of grasses and cultivated crops.[6] Macro-nutrient ratios influence food choice,[18] with the species showing a preference for a carbohydrate-biased diet.[19] Access to carbohydrate-rich grasses is crucial for Australian plague locusts to grow and build fat reserves for migration, meaning the type of vegetation available,rather than just its quantity,strongly influences their population dynamics and migratory potential.[17]

In the subtropical inland, a single rainfall event can be sufficient for a generation to develop. Short-lived grass species such as button grass (Dactyloctenium radulans) support nymphal survival, while long-lasting Mitchell grasses enable adults to persist until maturity and migrate.[6]

Nymphs are voracious feeders and often congregate in the sparse vegetation associated with egg beds. In the wheat belt, oviposition sites are typically hard, bare areas, stock routes, thin pastures, and creek banks, with hoppers remaining in these areas for several days after hatching. Later-stage nymphs and adults occur in a variety of habitats, avoiding dense pastures and wooded areas.[14] The ideal habitat consists of bare ground for basking, low (<10 cm) green vegetation, and taller tussocks (up to 1 m) for night shelter.[5] In the southern agricultural zones, the species likewise utilizes the diverse mix of grasses and crops available.[6]

Land-use change

The clearing of forest and woodland vegetation has expanded potential habitat in the agricultural regions of southern and eastern Australia.[1][20][21] This was recognized as far back as1912, when New South Wales government entomologist W. W. Froggatt observed that as farming expanded westward, locusts would move into wheat paddocks, with the removal of timber and scrub enabling unbroken flight across the plains.[20]

Rangelands with few trees[22] and ample bare ground provide C. terminifera favorable conditions for oviposition and nymphal growth.[23] Such habitats support population buildup and can lead to outbreaks that spread into nearby grazing and crop lands.[24][25][26] in [17]. Large swarms can devastate pasture, reducing livestock forage, while locust control measures may also harm livestock through pesticide exposure.[27] in [17]

Interestingly, under a changing climate, the outbreak range of the Australian plague locust has been predicted to decrease.[28][29] Models show that Australian plague locust outbreaks are best predicted in spring, driven mainly by rainfall seasonality and winter soil moisture. Summer and autumn outbreaks relate more to temperature and rainfall extremes. Climate projections suggest that by century’s end, outbreak-prone areas will shrink,especially in spring,due to hotter, drier conditions, though parts of NSW and QLD may remain high-risk.[28]

Pest status

With its strong migratory ability and capacity to devastate crops and rangeland, the Australian plague locust is a destructive agricultural pest. While population increases can be confined to one or two regions, major outbreaks span several states and usually occur when plentiful rainfall and soil moisture coincide with temperatures conducive to locust development across much of their eastern or western habitat range. Plagues of C. terminifera usually don't last long compared to locusts in other parts of the world. They happen about once every ten years and typically last for one to two years.[10] Only four times in the last 80 years has there been widespread plagues lasting more than one year. Outbreaks are spatially variable and areas with high densities of locusts one year might not have them the next year. [30][31] Since World War II, improvements in agriculture, large-scale locust control, and social welfare have generally reduced personal hardships for farmers.[10] Nevertheless, the Australian plague locust remains one of the most significant and widely distributed agricultural pests in the country, affecting cereal crops, clover, cotton, potatoes, sugar cane, orchards, vegetables, and pasture grasses.[32][5]

Management

The planning and coordination of locust control in Australia primarily involve the The Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC) and state agencies, with regional agencies coordinated by their respective states. State agencies also provide direct guidance to landholders implementing their own control measures; for example, in New South Wales, landholders can access pesticides through the Local Land Services divisions.[29] The APLC manages populations most likely to pose interstate threats, closely monitoring locust numbers and weather conditions. Vehicle-based surveys by APLC field officers, reports from state and regional agencies, and landholder observations all contribute to monitoring efforts. Data are transferred to a GIS at Canberra headquarters, where dense hopper bands are also located from the air when necessary for early intervention. Monthly forecasts and risk statements predict the size and extent of infestations, supported by satellite imagery of vegetation greenness, insect monitoring radar, light traps, and wind trajectories from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology to help predict migration.[6]

All monitoring data are integrated into a GIS-based Decision Support System, which combines simulation models and mapping tools to guide forecasting and operational control decisions.[6] These analyses and forecasts are shared widely with stakeholders across multiple platforms and formats, ensuring effective monitoring, management, and communication. Through this collaborative approach, the APLC and state agencies play a central role in surveillance, forecasting, and targeted control operations.[29] See the Australian Plague Locust Commission for more information, including outbreak situation bulletins.

The Australian plague locust is primarily managed with chemical pesticides, using blanket treatments of swarms,often with fenitrothion,and strip treatments of bands with the longer-lasting fipronil. Strip treatments are applied by flying into the wind and spraying every 300–500 m, leaving unsprayed gaps between passes. The impact of spraying on non-target organisms is closely monitored to understand and minimize environmental effects.[6]

The biocontrol agent Metarhizium acridum (Green Guard®) has been used operationally since 2000, treating nearly 100,000 ha to date (2019). Its application on organic farms, in national parks, near waterways, and in habitats with rare or endangered species allows locusts to be managed wherever they occur, supporting early intervention strategies.[6]

Outbreaks

Major outbreaks occur frequently in parts of inland New South Wales, Queensland, and eastern South Australia. At times, populations escalate to plague levels in one or more of these areas. Large-scale invasions into Victoria may also occur, along with outbreaks in both the inland and agricultural regions of Western Australia.[6] Major plagues have occurred in 1933–35, 1953–55, 1973–74,1978–79, 1983–84, 1999– 2000, 1992–94, 2004–05, and 2009-2010.[20][6][10]

From the 1800s to the early 1900s, locusts caused substantial difficulties for Australian farmers striving to establish sustainable livelihoods.[10] The first recorded outbreaks of the Australian plague locust occurred in the early 1870s, while earlier infestations in the 1840s were attributed to the small plague grasshopper (Austroicetes cruciata).[21] in [17]

In the 1920s and 1930s, repeated outbreaks of high-density populations in inland agricultural regions of southeastern and southwestern Australia prompted a nationwide research initiative to tackle the "grasshopper problem".[20] Another significant outbreak occurred in the 1950s, but it was the 1973–74 plague,spanning New South Wales, northern Victoria, and southern South Australia,that led to the establishment of the Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC).[17]

During the 1984 plague, crop losses were estimated at around $5 million, and without control measures, losses could have exceeded $100 million.[6] One of the most severe and recent outbreaks was the 2010 plague, with approximately 2,000 landholders reporting high-density bands.[20] in [17] During this time, federal, state, and local governments, along with landholders, prevented potential losses of $963 million, with total expenditures of about $50 million.[6]

Since then, there have been a few localized outbreaks, but overall population levels remained unusually low.[33] Between 2020 and 2022, high rainfall and abundant vegetation led to forecasts of large-scale outbreaks that did not occur, suggesting additional factors influence population dynamics.[34] Detailed reports can be found in the APLC Locust Bulletins.

Outbreak media coverage

Associated organizations

Organization name Acronym Website Type Focus Focus keywords Geographic purview
Australian Plague Locust Commission APLC View Government Management, Research, Governance Agricultural development, Control, Coordination, Education, Emergency assistance, Forecasting, Funding, Governance, Information hub, International development, Media, Monitoring, Policy, Regional cooperation, Research, Sustainable development, Technology, Training, Natural sciences Australia
Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development DPI WA View Government Management Monitoring, Control, Forecasting, Training Australia
Department of Primary Industries and Regions PIRSA View Government Management, Development, Information Hub Control, Sustainable development Australia
Global Locust Initiative GLI View University Research, Education, Information Hub Sustainable development, Ecology, Nutrition, Social science, Natural sciences, Agriculture, Agroecology, Biology, Behavior, Biological control, Climate change, Education, Sustainability science, Geometric framework, Grazing, Governance, Food security, Arts and humanities, Land use management, Landscape ecology, Locusts, Migration, Phase polyphenism, Phenotypic plasticity, Soil science United States, Senegal, Australia, China, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Mali
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries NSW DPI View Government Education, Management Monitoring, Control, Forecasting, Training, Natural sciences Australia
New South Wales Local Land Services NSW LLS View Government Management Monitoring, Control, Natural sciences Australia
Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries QLD DPI View Government Management Monitoring, Control, Forecasting, Natural sciences Australia
Queensland Department of Natural Resources DNR View Government Governance, Management, Monitoring, Education Management, Control Australia


Resources

Title Author(s) Year Geographic purview URL
APLC Lab Rearing Procedures and Schedule Australian Plague Locust Commission 2026 View URL
Queensland locust sightings form Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2025
Short-term population forecasting of the Australian Plague Locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) based on machine-learning algorithms Centre of Excellence for Biosecurity Risk Analysis, Australian Plague Locust Commission,Edward Deveson, Allan Spessa,John Baumgartner and James Camac 2025 View URL
Australian plague locust 2023 View URL
How to identify locusts 2021 View URL
Managing locusts in Queensland 2022 View URL
Locusts in Queensland 2003 View URL
Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development 2006 View URL
NSF Coupled Natural Human Systems Living with Locusts project summary Australian Plague Locust Commission, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Inner Mongolia Agriculture University, New South Wales Local Land Services, Directorate of Plant Protection, Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Chinese Academy of Sciences and University of Sydney 2021
Australian plague locust landholder control strategies for NSW Government of New South Wales View URL
Australian plague locust online learning module 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria Australian plague locust identification, biology and behaviour 2022 View URL
Agriculture Victoria locust and grasshopper online reporting form
CABI Green Muscle education videos Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International 2021
Locust Literature The French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development View URL
Australian Plague Locust Commission current locust situation Australian Plague Locust Commission
Australian Plague Locust Commission locust bulletin Australian Plague Locust Commission
APLC locust and grasshopper identification guide Australian Plague Locust Commission
Locusts of Australia Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries 2020 View URL


Specimen contributors for this species

Bionomia logo Bionomia links specimen records in GBIF to the people who collected and identified them. Each list shows the top 20 for this species. Read more…

Collected by

People who collected specimens of this species in the field.

Identified by

People who determined the taxonomic identity of specimens of this species.

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 Australian Plague Locust Commission. Australian Government, https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/locusts/about/australia . Accessed 8/11/21.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 The State of Queensland, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (2023) Locusts. Queensland Government. 1-6. https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/ckan-publications-attachments-prod/resources/5afadaf9-2451-40eb-933f-1d3c0bb7f75e/locusts.pdf?ETag=ba0179fc61ecc1764ca311ca818304eb
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Simpson SJ, Sword GA (2008) Locusts. Current Biology 18: R364–R366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.02.029
  4. ↑ The State of Queensland, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (2023) Locusts. 1-6. https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/ckan-publications-attachments-prod/resources/5afadaf9-2451-40eb-933f-1d3c0bb7f75e/locusts.pdf?ETag=ba0179fc61ecc1764ca311ca818304eb
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 COPR (1982) The Locust and Grasshopper Agricultural Manual. London: Overseas Pest Research. 690.
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 The Australian plague locust Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker, 1870) (Acrididae). In: Lecoq M, Zhang L (Eds) Encyclopedia of pest Orthoptera of the world. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing, China, pp. 165-169. https://orthsoc.org/2020/09/18/encyclopedia-of-pest-orthoptera-of-the-world-book-now-shipping-worldwide/
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Walton CS, Hardwick L, Hanson J (2003) Locust in Queensland Pest status review series - Land protection. Queensland Government Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Qld. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/75963/IPA-Locusts-PSA.pdf
  8. ↑ Hunter DM, Walker PW, Elder RJ (2001) Adaptations of locusts and grasshoppers to the low and variable rainfall of Australia. Journal of Orthoptera Research 10: 347–351.https://doi.org/10.1665/1082-6467(2001)010[0347:AOLAGT]2.0.CO;2
  9. ↑ Farrow RA (1982) Population dynamics of the Australian plague locust, ‘’Chortoicetes terminifera’’ (Walker) in Central Western New South Wales Ii. Factors influencing natality and survival. Australian Journal of Zoology 30: 199–222.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Adriaansen C, Woodman JD, Deveson E, Drake VA (2016) Chapter 4.1 - The Australian Plague Locust—Risk and Response. In: Shroder JF, Sivanpillai R (Eds), Biological and Environmental Hazards, Risks, and Disasters. Academic Press, Boston, 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394847-2.00005-X
  11. ↑ Hunter DM, McCulloch L, Wright DE (1981) Lipid accumulation and migratory flight in the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 71: 543–546. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485300010051
  12. ↑ Gray LJ, Sword GA, Anstey ML, Clissold FJ, Simpson SJ (2009) Behavioural phase polyphenism in the Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera). Biology Letters 5: 306–309. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0764
  13. ↑ Cullen DA, Sword GA, Dodgson T, Simpson SJ (2010) Behavioural phase change in the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera, is triggered by tactile stimulation of the antennae. Journal of Insect Physiology 56: 937–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2010.04.023
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Lawton D, Waters C, Le Gall M, Cease A (2020) Woody vegetation remnants within pastures influence locust distribution: Testing bottom-up and top-down control. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 296: 106931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2020.106931
  15. ↑ Deveson ED, Walker PW (2005) Not a one-way trip: historical distribution data for Australian plague locusts support frequent seasonal exchange migrations. Journal of Orthoptera Research 14: 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1665/1082-6467(2005)14[91:NAOTHD]2.0.CO;2
  16. ↑ Chapuis MP, Popple JAM, Berthier K, Simpson SJ, Deveson E, Spurgin P, et al. (2011) Challenges to assessing connectivity between massive populations of the Australian plague locust. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278: 3152–3160. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2605
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Le Gall M, Overson R, Cease A (2019) A Global Review on Locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and Their Interactions With Livestock Grazing Practices. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7: 263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00263
  18. ↑ Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D (2012) The nature of nutrition: a unifying framework from animal adaptation to human obesity. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 220 pp. Available from: https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/lib/asulib-ebooks/reader.action?docID=902773
  19. ↑ Clissold FJ, Sanson GD, Read J (2006) The paradoxical effects of nutrient ratios and supply rates on an outbreaking insect herbivore, the Australian plague locust. Journal of Animal Ecology 75: 1000–1013. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01122.x
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Deveson ED (2011) The search for a solution to Australian locust outbreaks: how developments in ecology and government responses influenced scientific research. Historical Records of Australian Science 22: 1. https://doi.org/10.1071/HR11003
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Deveson ED (2012) Naturae amator and the grasshopper infestations of South Australia’s early years. Transactions of the Royal Society South Australia 136: 1–15.https://doi.org/10.1080/03721426.2012.10887158
  22. ↑ Clark LR (1950) On the abundance of the Australian plague locust Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) in relation to the presence of trees. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1071/AR9500064
  23. ↑ Clark LR (1947) An ecological study of the Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera Walk.) in the Bogan-Macquarie outbreak area. NSW. https://doi.org/10.25919/ygfz-cv74
  24. ↑ Watts JG, Huddleston EW, Owens JC (1982) Rangeland entomology. Annual Review of Entomology 27: 283–311. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.27.010182.001435
  25. ↑ Symmons PM (1984) Control of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker). Crop Protection 3: 479–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-2194(84)90029-2
  26. ↑ Wright DE, Symmons PM (1987) The development and control of the 1984 plague of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker). Crop Protection 6: 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-2194(87)90022-6
  27. ↑ Hooper GHS (1998) The changing environment of locust control in Australia. Journal of Orthoptera Research 7: 113–115. https://doi.org/10.2307/3503505
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Wang B, Deveson ED, Waters C, Spessa A, Lawton D, Feng P, Liu DL (2019) Future climate change likely to reduce the Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera) seasonal outbreaks. Science of The Total Environment 668: 947–957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.439
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Ries MW, Adriaansen C, Aldobai S, Berry K, Bal AB, Catenaccio MC, Cigliano MM, Cullen DA, Deveson T, Diongue A, Foquet B, Hadrich J, Hunter D, Johnson DL, Pablo Karnatz J, Lange CE, Lawton D, Lazar M, Latchininsky AV, Lecoq M, Le Gall M, Lockwood J, Manneh B, Overson R, Peterson BF, Piou C, Poot-Pech MA, Robinson BE, Rogers SM, Song H, Springate S, Therville C, Trumper E, Waters C, Woller DA, Youngblood JP, Zhang L, Cease A (2024) Global perspectives and transdisciplinary opportunities for locust and grasshopper pest management and research. Journal of Orthoptera Research 33(2): 169–216. doi:10.3897/jor.33.112803.
  30. ↑ Wright DE (1987) Analysis of the development of major plagues of the Australian plague locust Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) using a simulation model. Australian Journal of Ecology. 12: 4 423-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1987.tb00959.x
  31. ↑ Deveson ED (2013) Satellite normalized difference vegetation index data used in managing Australian plague locusts. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 7: 075096. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JRS.7.075096
  32. ↑ Hunter DM (2004) Advances in the control of locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in eastern Australia: from crop protection to preventive control. Australian Journal of Entomology 43: 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1326-6756.2004.00433.x
  33. ↑ Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2025) Locust Bulletins. Australian Government. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/pests-diseases-weeds/locusts/bulletins
  34. ↑ Law SR, Dow L, Hoque M, Walsh N, Khan M, Barrett LG (2025) Molecular profiling of the Australian plague locust pathobiome reveals a microbial driver of population suppression. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 213: 108402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2025.108402
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